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Science 8 Accelerated Study Guide 2011-2012 Study dolphins say hi and good luck!



__Science 8__ __Science 9__
 * Chapter 1 - 1.1 Observing Living Things, 1.2 Cells, 1.3 Diffusion, Osmosis, And the Cell Membrane
 * Chapter 2 - 2.1 Body Systems, 2.2 The Digestive and Excretory Systems
 * Chapter 4 - 4.1 The Function of the Nucleus Within the Cell, 4.2 Mutations
 * Chapter 5 - 5.1 The Cell Cycle and Mitosis, 5.2 Asexual Reproduction
 * Chapter 6 - 6.1 Meiosis, 6.2 Sexual Reproduction, 6.3 Assisted Reproductive Technologies

Study Guide:

__Science 8:__ __**Chapter 1**__ __Terms:__ somebody please do these.. PLEASE PLEASE PLEASE

__Chapter 1.2__ Light + carbon dioxide + water > food + oxygen
 * A factory can be used as an analogy for the cell
 * parts of the cell are called organelles
 * organelles take up 5-30% of the cell, the rest is water
 * cell membrane protects cell and keeps its shape
 * cell membrane also regulates movement of particles of the cell - see osmosis
 * cytoplasm is the jelly-like substance within the cell which contains organelles, water, and other life supporting materials
 * The nucleus controls all activities within the cell and contains DNA (more detail in grade 9 ch4)
 * mitochondria produce energy for the cell
 * proteins are essential for all life and are assembled by the robosomes
 * proteins then pass through the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and are placed in vesicles in the golgi body
 * vacuoles are temporary storage compartments
 * lysosomes break down food particles, cell wastes, and worn out organelles (think about them eating the garbage)
 * Plant cells have a cell wall and chloroplasts, which animal cells don't have.
 * Chloroplasts change energy from the sun into a chemical energy (photosynthesis):

Food + oxygen > carbon dioxide + water + energy The cell is the basic unit of life All organisms are composed of one or more cells All cells come from other living cells
 * •Formula for the mitochondria to make energy (ANIMAL cells, called cellular respiration):
 * Cell theory is:
 * prokaryotic cells don't have a membrane (remember because they're too __pro__ for a membrane) (
 * Eukaryotic cells do have a membrane and are usually larger than prokaryotic cells
 * Bacteria are prokaryotic cells
 * some bacteria cause diseases
 * bacteria can be used in food like cheese and yogurt
 * Viruses are not living
 * HIV, the flu and chicken pox are examples of viruses
 * Viruses don't contain any cell organelles but reproduce using a host cell (remember? viruses trick cells into letting them in and then take over)

__Chapter 1.3__
 * Diffusion is the movement of particles of an area with higher concentration to an area with lower concentration
 * Osmosis is the same as diffusion, but only with __water particles__
 * The cell membrane is a selectively permeable membrane (SPM)
 * the SPM lets some particles pass into the cell but not others (think of water and oil)
 * substances can move through the cell by diffusion
 * when the concentration on both sides of the SPM is equal, it is called the equilibrium (think the point of equilibrium, for all of you business-takers)
 * osmosis is how the cell gains and loses its needed water
 * if a cell is shriveled, more water is coming in than going out and it will become bigger
 * if a cell is swollen, more water is going out than coming in and it will become smaller
 * if a cell is regularly sized, the flow is equal

__**Chapter 2**__ __2.1__ 1. A system is made up of individual parts that work together as a whole 2. A system is usually connected to one or more systems Cell > tissue > organ > organ system
 * Characteristics of a system:
 * 1) If one part of a system is missing or damaged, the system will not function well or may not function at all
 * Levels of organization:
 * Four tissues:
 * Connective tissue holds together and supports other tissue
 * Muscle tissue assists in body movement
 * Nerve tissue transfers signals from the brain
 * Epithelial tissue covers the surface of organs and body


 * **system** || **function** ||
 * circulatory || Transports blood, nutrients, gases and wastes ||
 * digestive || breaks down food and absorbs the nutrients ||
 * respiratory || exchanges gases in lungs and tissues ||
 * excretory || removes liquid and gas wastes from the body ||
 * immune || defends body against infections ||
 * endocrine || manufactures and releases hormones ||
 * reproductive || includes reproductive organs for producing offspring ||
 * integumentary || creates a waterproof barrier around the body ||
 * skeletal || supports, protects, and works with muscles to move parts of the body ||
 * muscular || has muscles that work with the bones to move parts of the body ||
 * nervous || detects changes in the environment and signals the body to carry out a response ||

__2.2__ grain products vegetables and fruits milk products meat and alternatives (beans, tofu)
 * Four food groups:
 * Types of Nutrients:
 * 1) Carbohydrates - the bodies quickest source of nutrients [rice, veggies, cereal, bread]
 * 2) Proteins - used to build parts of your muscles, skin, hair, and nails [fish, meat, nuts, soy products]
 * 3) Fats - used to build cell membranes and can be stored for future energy [butter, vegetable oil, meat]
 * 4) Minerals and Vitamins - needed in small amounts to preform various body functions [calcium, vitamin D]
 * Four stages of digestion:
 * 1) ingestion - bringing food into the body
 * 2) digestion - starts in the mouth, goes down your esophagus, goes through stomach
 * 3) absorption - starts in small intestine, then through large intestine
 * 4) elimination - feces is stored in rectum and then eliminated by the anus
 * Mechanical digestion is when your teeth and tongue break food into small enough pieces to swallow
 * Chemical digestion is when saliva breaks down the bolus

__Science 9:__

__**Chapter 4**__

__Terms:__ __chromosome -__ an X shaped structure in the nucleus that carries genes __DNA-__ a molecule containing genetic information that's passed down from generations. Found in the cell's nucleus __gene -__ a small segment of DNA found on a chromosome, contains information for protein production __gene mutation -__ a change in the order of base pairs that make up a gene __gene therapy -__ replacing mutated genes with healthy ones __mutagen -__ substances that can cause mutation __negative mutation -__ a mutation that harms an organism __neutral mutation -__ a mutation which has neither anegative or positive effect on an organism __nucleolus -__ an organelle in the nucleus that makes ribosomes __nucleus -__ an organelle that controls all the cell's functions and contains DNA __positive mutation -__ a mutation with a positive effect on an organism __protein -__ essential nutrients for cells to carry out survival functions __double helix -__ the structure of DNA __chromatin -__ a substance in the nucleus that contains DNA and proteins __adenine -__ one of the four nitrogen bases in DNA, always pairs with thymine __thymine -__ one of the four nitrogen bases in DNA, always pairs with adenine __cytosine -__ one of the four nitrogen bases in DNA, always pairs with guanine __guanine -__ one of the four nitrogen bases in DNA, always pairs with cytosine __RNA -__ (ribonucleic acid) a single stranded structure of DNA small enough to leave a nuclear pore __nitrogen bases -__ cytosine, guanine, adenine and thymine, the rungs of the DNA ladder

__Chapter 4.1__ 1. the nucleus receives a chemical message to make a specific protein 2. DNA message for the protein is copied onto a smaller molecule called RNA (single stranded DNA) 3. RNA leaves nucleus through a nuclear pore (DNA is too big to leave the pores) 4. RNA message is delivered to a ribosome and the ribosome manufactures the protein 5. The protein enters the ER 6. Vesicle forms at the end of the ER and is pinched off and sent to the golgi body 7. Golgi body repackages protein for transport out of the cell 8. Vesicle forms and is pinched off GB and sent to the cell membrane 9. Vesicle attaches to membrane and releases its proteins out of the cell
 * Plant cells have chloroplasts, call walls and large vacuoles that animal calls do not
 * The nucleus contains DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) which has the master set of instruction for the cell's functions, what they will produce, and when they will die
 * DNA looks like a twisted ladder (double helix)
 * The sides of DNA are made of sugar and phosphate (Remember the liquorice models - black, red, black, red alternating)
 * The rungs of the ladder of DNA are made up of four nitrogen bases : Adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine
 * Adenine always joins with thymine
 * Cytosine always joins with guanine (REMEMBER - CG AT)
 * Regularly, DNA is in the form of chromatin
 * Chromatin coils up into x like shapes called chromosomes
 * Humans have 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs
 * 23rd pair is XX for girls and XY for guys
 * Genes are small segments located on a chromosome (each chrom. can carry thousands of genes!)
 * Genes carry the information to produce proteins
 * The Production of Protein:

__Chapter 4.2__
 * a gene mutation is a change in the order of the bases in DNA
 * types of gene mutations - deletion, addition and substitutions
 * Gene mutations can be harmful or a surplus to the organism
 * Mutagens are substances such as mercury, cigarette smoke, x-ray and UV radiation, and certain viruses
 * gene therapy is replacing harmed DNA with new DNA

__**Chapter 5**__ __Terms:__

__prophase -__ first stage of mitosis __metaphase -__ second stage of mitosis __anaphase -__ third stage of mitosis __telophase -__ fourth stage of mitosis __centromere -__ the structure tat joins two sister chromatids together __sister chromatids -__ formed when DNA replicates during interphase and joined together by a centromere

__asexual reproduction -__ reproduction that requires only one parent and produces offspring that are genetic copies of the parent __binary fission -__ a form of asexual reproduction in which a single parent cell replicates its genetic material and divides into two parts __budding -__ a form of asexual reproduction in which areas of an individual may undergo repeated mitosis and cell division and can develop into an identical organism __cancer -__ the result of uncontrolled cell division __cell cycle -__ the three stages of like of a cell, which include interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis __clone -__ an identical genetic copy of an organism's parent __cytokinesis -__ the final stage of the cell cycle, which separates the two nuclei and cell contents into two daughter cells __fragmentation -__ a form of asexual reproduction in which each fragment of an organism developss into a clone __interphase -__ the first and longest stage of the cell cycle, in which cell scary out life functions and cell that divide prepare for cell division __mitosis -__ the second, and shortest, stage of the cell cycle; the process in which the duplicated contents of the cell's nucleus divides into two equal parts __replication -__ the process during which the cell copies 3 billion base pairs of DNA information in the nucleus __spindle fibres -__ tiny tube-like structures made of protein to which chromosomes attach during cell division __spore -__ reproductive cells that grow into new individuals by mitosis __stem cell -__ cells that have the potential to become many different types of cells; two types of stem cells are embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells __vegetative reproduction -__ reproduction in which special cells, usually in plant stems and plant roots, divide repeatedly to form structures that will eventually develop into a plant identical to the parent __therapeutic cloning -__ uses stem cells to correct health problems __reproductive cloning -__ produces a genetic duplicate of an existing or previously existing organism with desirable qualities

__5.1__ early prophase - nucleolus disappears and spindle fibres form. late prophase - spindle fibres attach to the centromeres of chromosomes. metaphase - chromosome align on the equator of cell (M is for metaphase and middle anaphase - spindle fibres pull sister chromatids to opposite poles of the cell. telophase - spindle fibres disappear and a nuclear membrane forms around each separated set of chromosomes. (Looks like stewie griffin's head) 1. DNA molecule unwinds with the help of an enzyme 2. New bases pair up with the bases on the original DNA 3. Two identical DNA molecules are produced
 * The cell cycle:
 * interphase - cell carries out normal functions for survival and prepare to divide
 * mitosis - divides the duplicated contents of the cell's nucleus into two parts
 * cytokinesis - separates the two nuclei and cell contents into two daughter cells
 * Stages of mitosis :
 * DNA replicates itself in late interphase. steps:

__5.2__ Binary fission Budding Fragmentation Vegitative reproduction Spore formation
 * a clone is an identical genetic copy of its parent
 * many organisms naturally clone via asexual reproduction
 * Cloning is also used in agriculture and research (all bananas are clones)
 * Types of asexual reproduction (look @ terms for definitions)
 * Advantages/Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction:
 * [[image:page11image1576.png]]
 * Human assisted cloning = Therapeutic cloning & Reproductive cloning
 * Therapeutic = using stem cells to heal one's cells (replacement)
 * stem cells are commonly taken from embryos and they can develop into 200 different cells
 * people are against therapeutic cloning because stem calls are taken from aborted babies
 * Reproductive = how dolly the sheep was created. Steps:

__**Chapter 6:**__

__Terms:__

__differentiation -__ in humans, the process in which cell layers eventually form the organs and tissues of a baby __diploid number -__ two sets of chromosomes (2n) diploid number of humans is 46 (per cell) __embryo -__ the stage of a multicellular organism that develops from a zygote __embryonic development -__ early development of a multicellular organism following fertilization __external fertilization -__ fertilization in which sperm and egg meet outside the bodies of the parents __fertilization -__ the process in which the sperm penetrates the egg __gametes -__ sperm and egg cells __genetic diversity -__ inherited genetic differences in a species that often give a survival advantage __haploid number -__ each set of the inherited chromosomes, half the diploid number (n) humans inherit 23 chromosomes from mother and 23 from father __homologous chromosomes -__ a pair of matching chromosomes __internal fertilization -__ fertilization in which sperm cells are deposited inside the female's body where they meet egg cells __mating -__ the process by which gametes arrive in the same place at the same time __meiosis -__ the process that produces gametes with half the number of chromosomes as body cells (23, n, haploid) __sexual reproduction -__ reproduction that requires two parents and produces offspring that are genetically from each other, each parent, and any other member of their species __zygote -__ The new diploid (Zn) cell formed by the prices of fertilization, which receives half its chromosomes from each parent

__6.1__ __6.2__ Mating - the process by which gametes are brought together at the same place and time. Fertilization - process by which egg and sperm join to form a new organism Development - the process by which an organism develops as an embryo 1. Embryo must have enough nutrients 2. Temperature must not be too cold or hot 3. There must be enough moisture, so it doesn't dry out 4. Embryo must be protected from predators and harmful stuff
 * normal body cells have a diploid number of chromosomes
 * gametes have a haploid number (they meet to make a zygote, which is a fancy word for the diploid of the two gametes)
 * zygote develops into an embryo and then into a baby!
 * Meiosis is the way we produce gametes
 * [[image:page5image2256.jpg width="800" height="447"]]
 * Diploid cells turn into four haploid gametes
 * in meiosis I, chromatids of chromatin pairs can cross over each other and exchange DNA segments increasing genetic possibilities and produces more variation (remember the square dance)
 * http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iCL6d0OwKt8&feature=related <For help on meiosis
 * Independent assortment happens in meiosis I and is when the pairs of chromosomes separate independently, creating many different combinations in the daughter cells
 * In males, all 4 gametes resulting from meiosis develop into sperm
 * In females only 1 cell gets most of the cytoplasm and becomes the egg
 * Stages of sexual reproduction:
 * For embryos to successfully develop certain needs must be met:
 * Fertilization can happen inside or outside the body
 * External fertilization is outside the bodies (remember: ex = out!)

__External fertilization advantages:__ Very little energy required to mate Large numbers of offspring produced Offspring can be spread widely in the environment - less competition between each other and parents

__External fertilization disadvantages:__ Many gametes will not survive Many eggs will not be fertilized Offspring are often not protected by parents, so many die


 * Internal is inside the body. (__in__ternal, __in__side)

__Internal fertilization advantages:__ Embryo protected from predators Offspring more likely to survive because of protection

__Disadvantages:__ Much more energy required to find mate Fewer zygotes produced - less offspring More energy needed to raise offspring

__First Trimester (0-12 wks)__ Organ system begin to develop and form. bone cells form.
 * Fetal development happens in three **trimesters** (each is 12 weeks)

__Second Trimester (12-24 wks)__ rapid growth

__Third Trimester (24+ wks)__ continued growth and mass weight gain (like after marriage)


 * Sexual Reprodcution pros and cons!
 * [[image:1__#$!@%!#__page11image1576.png]]